Giant Intraventricular Arachnoid Cyst Incidentally Discovered After Minor Head Trauma

When a Routine Trauma CT Reveals a Silent Congenital Brain Lesion: Radiologic Interpretation, Clinical Decision-Making, and the Future Role of Artificial Intelligence

Clinical Hook

Every day, emergency departments perform countless CT examinations following seemingly minor head trauma.

Most reveal no significant abnormalities.

Occasionally, however, imaging uncovers an entirely unexpected diagnosis—one unrelated to the patient's presenting complaint but potentially more important than the trauma itself.

Such incidental findings often challenge radiologists, emergency physicians, and neurosurgeons alike.

The present case beautifully illustrates this scenario.

A previously healthy 22-year-old man presented after striking his head against the windshield during a motor vehicle collision.

Neurological examination was entirely normal.

CT was performed solely to exclude traumatic intracranial injury.

Instead, radiologists encountered an enormous cystic lesion occupying the right lateral ventricle.

Subsequent MRI demonstrated a giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst measuring approximately 11 × 7 cm, causing marked expansion of the temporal and occipital horns, cortical thinning, and mild midline shift, despite the patient remaining neurologically intact.

This remarkable discrepancy between striking neuroimaging findings and minimal clinical symptoms represents one of the most fascinating aspects of neuroimaging.

Learning Objectives

After completing this article, readers should be able to:

Explain the embryologic origin of arachnoid cysts.
Recognize characteristic CT and MRI findings.
Distinguish arachnoid cysts from other cystic intracranial lesions.
Understand the mechanisms responsible for neurological symptoms.
Appreciate why many giant cysts remain asymptomatic.
Review current surgical and conservative treatment strategies.
Understand the emerging role of AI-assisted neuroimaging.
Apply imaging pearls during daily radiology interpretation.

Case Presentation

Patient

Age: 22 years

Sex: Male

Clinical History

The patient was involved in a motor vehicle collision during which his head struck the windshield.

Initial neurological examination revealed no focal neurological deficit.

Physical examination was otherwise unremarkable.

Because of the traumatic mechanism, a non-contrast brain CT was performed to exclude intracranial hemorrhage or skull fracture.

CT Findings

Unexpectedly, CT demonstrated severe enlargement of the occipital horn and temporal horn of the right lateral ventricle, caused by a large CSF-density cystic lesion rather than traumatic injury.

No acute intracranial hemorrhage was identified.

No skull fracture was described.

The lesion appeared chronic rather than traumatic.

Figure 1. Non-contrast Brain CT Demonstrating a Giant Right Intraventricular Arachnoid Cyst

Non-contrast axial brain CT obtained after minor head trauma demonstrates marked enlargement of the right temporal and occipital horns by a large cerebrospinal fluid–density cystic lesion. No acute intracranial hemorrhage or skull fracture is identified. The chronic remodeling of adjacent brain structures suggests a longstanding congenital lesion rather than traumatic pathology.

MRI Findings

MRI further characterized the lesion as:

Giant cystic lesion
Approximately 11 × 7 cm
Located within the right lateral ventricular region
Expansion of the temporal horn
Expansion of the occipital horn
Mild compression of the third ventricle
Mild midline shift
Marked thinning of the adjacent temporal and occipital cortex
Compression of the midbrain and brainstem

Despite these dramatic anatomical changes, no neurological deficit was documented.

Figure 2. MRI Demonstrating a Giant Intraventricular Arachnoid Cyst with Chronic Mass Effect

Brain MRI confirms an approximately 11 × 7 cm cerebrospinal fluid–signal cyst occupying the right temporal and occipital horns. The lesion produces cortical thinning, mild compression of the third ventricle, subtle midline shift, and mass effect on the midbrain and brainstem while maintaining imaging characteristics typical of an arachnoid cyst.

Final Diagnosis

Large asymptomatic intraventricular arachnoid cyst

Clinical Outcome

Neurosurgical intervention was recommended.

However, the patient elected discharge against medical advice and was subsequently lost to follow-up.

Anatomy Review

Why Understanding Ventricular Anatomy Matters

Interpreting intraventricular cystic lesions requires a detailed understanding of ventricular anatomy because lesion location often narrows the differential diagnosis before advanced imaging characteristics are considered.

The lateral ventricles are divided into:

Frontal horn
Body
Occipital horn
Temporal horn
Trigone (atrium)

In this patient, the lesion predominantly involved the temporal and occipital horns, producing marked focal ventricular enlargement rather than generalized hydrocephalus. This distribution strongly suggested a localized obstructive or developmental process instead of diffuse CSF circulation failure.

Normal Anatomy of the Lateral Ventricles

Clinical Importance

Knowledge of normal ventricular anatomy enables radiologists to distinguish congenital ventricular expansion from hydrocephalus and to localize lesions affecting CSF pathways.

Imaging Findings

Key Diagnostic Imaging Features

Imaging Feature	Diagnostic Significance
CSF density	Suggests an arachnoid cyst
No enhancement	Benign lesion
No diffusion restriction	Excludes epidermoid
Cortical thinning	Chronic lesion
Mild midline shift	Mass effect

Pathophysiology

Arachnoid cysts are benign, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-filled lesions located within duplicated or split layers of the arachnoid membrane. Unlike true epithelial cysts, arachnoid cysts are lined by flattened arachnoid cells and typically contain fluid with biochemical characteristics nearly identical to normal CSF.

The uploaded case supports a congenital developmental origin, as there was no imaging evidence of acute traumatic cyst formation. The patient exhibited extensive chronic remodeling of the temporal and occipital lobes, indicating that the lesion had likely been present for many years before its incidental discovery.

Embryologic Development

During embryogenesis, the meninges differentiate into three distinct layers:

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater

Failure of normal fusion or duplication of the arachnoid membrane may create a potential cavity that gradually fills with CSF.

Several mechanisms have been proposed for cyst enlargement:

Passive CSF pulsation
One-way valve mechanism
Osmotic pressure gradient
Active secretion by arachnoid cells

Current evidence favors a combination of CSF pulsatility and intermittent pressure gradients as the principal drivers of progressive enlargement.

Why Can Giant Cysts Remain Asymptomatic?

Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of this case is the profound mismatch between anatomy and clinical presentation.

MRI demonstrated:

Approximately 11 × 7 cm cyst
Significant temporal cortical thinning
Occipital cortical thinning
Mild midline shift
Third ventricular compression
Brainstem compression

Yet neurological examination remained normal.

Several explanations account for this phenomenon:

Slow Brain Adaptation

Congenital lesions enlarge gradually over many years.

The surrounding brain adapts remarkably well to slowly progressive mass effect, unlike rapidly expanding lesions such as hemorrhage or tumors.

Functional Plasticity

Young brains possess substantial neuroplasticity.

Adjacent cortical regions may assume functions originally performed by compressed tissue.

Stable Intracranial Pressure

Many arachnoid cysts maintain equilibrium with surrounding CSF pressure.

Consequently, despite impressive imaging appearances, intracranial pressure may remain near normal.

Figure 3. Mechanism of Arachnoid Cyst Formation

Slow enlargement explains why congenital cysts may produce dramatic neuroimaging findings despite minimal clinical manifestations.

Epidemiology

Although arachnoid cysts are uncommon, they are among the most frequently encountered congenital intracranial cystic lesions.

Large MRI screening studies estimate an overall prevalence of approximately 1–2% in adults.

Nearly half occur within the middle cranial fossa, whereas intraventricular arachnoid cysts—such as the present case—are distinctly rare.

Most lesions are detected incidentally during imaging performed for unrelated indications.

Table 1. Epidemiology of Intracranial Arachnoid Cysts

Parameter	Summary
Overall prevalence	Approximately 1–2%
Congenital origin	Majority
Adult incidental diagnosis	Common
Male predominance	Mild
Most common location	Middle cranial fossa
Intraventricular location	Rare
Malignant transformation	None reported
Prognosis	Generally excellent

Clinical Manifestations

Clinical presentation depends almost entirely upon:

Cyst size
Anatomical location
Mass effect
CSF flow obstruction

Many patients remain asymptomatic throughout life.

When symptoms occur, they usually result from gradual compression of adjacent neural structures.

The uploaded document summarizes common manifestations, including:

Headache
Nausea
Vomiting
Seizures
Limb weakness or numbness
Visual disturbance
Cognitive or behavioral changes
Hydrocephalus secondary to impaired CSF circulation

Interestingly, none of these symptoms were documented in the current patient despite the remarkable lesion size.

Clinical Pearl

Imaging severity should never be equated with clinical severity.

Radiologists must integrate imaging findings with neurological examination rather than recommending intervention solely on lesion size.

Imaging Diagnosis

Computed Tomography (CT)

CT remains the initial imaging modality in emergency trauma evaluation.

Typical arachnoid cyst findings include:

Homogeneous CSF attenuation
Thin imperceptible wall
No calcification
No surrounding edema
Smooth remodeling of adjacent bone or brain

Because CT is frequently performed in trauma settings, incidental arachnoid cysts are commonly first recognized during emergency imaging.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI provides definitive characterization.

Typical MRI features include:

T1 hypointense
T2 hyperintense
Complete suppression on FLAIR (similar to CSF)
No diffusion restriction
No contrast enhancement
Smooth margins
Excellent delineation of mass effect

MRI also distinguishes arachnoid cysts from epidermoid cysts, cystic tumors, and chronic encephalomalacia.

Advanced MRI

Additional sequences may include:

Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI)
Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI)
3D T2-weighted imaging
Phase-contrast CSF flow imaging
Volumetric MRI

These techniques become particularly valuable in surgical planning.

Table 2. Imaging Modalities

Imaging Modality	Typical Findings	Advantages	Limitations
CT	CSF-density lesion	Fast, emergency evaluation	Limited tissue characterization
MRI	CSF signal lesion	Best anatomical definition	Longer acquisition
DWI	No restriction	Excludes epidermoid cyst	Additional sequence required
Contrast MRI	No enhancement	Excludes tumors	Requires a contrast agent
Cine MRI	CSF flow evaluation	Surgical planning	Specialized technique

Differential Diagnosis

Several intracranial cystic lesions may mimic arachnoid cysts.

Accurate differentiation is essential because management varies considerably.

Epidermoid Cyst

Unlike arachnoid cysts, epidermoid cysts demonstrate diffusion restriction on DWI owing to keratinaceous debris.

Porencephalic Cyst

Porencephalic cysts communicate directly with damaged brain parenchyma and represent acquired encephalomalacia rather than congenital meningeal lesions.

Neuroglial Cyst

Typically intra-axial rather than extra-axial and usually smaller.

Cystic Neoplasm

Often demonstrates:

Enhancing mural nodules
Solid components
Surrounding edema

Features absent in the present case.

Ventricular Enlargement

Hydrocephalus causes generalized ventricular dilation rather than localized cystic expansion with cortical remodeling.

Table 3. Differential Diagnosis

Disease	Imaging Findings	Key Distinguishing Feature
Arachnoid cyst	CSF signal, no enhancement	No diffusion restriction
Epidermoid cyst	Similar to CSF	Bright on DWI
Porencephalic cyst	Communicates with the brain	Adjacent encephalomalacia
Neuroglial cyst	Intra-axial	Rare ventricular location
Cystic tumor	Solid enhancing component	Contrast enhancement
Hydrocephalus	General ventricular enlargement	Diffuse ventricular dilation

Imaging Pearls & Pitfalls

Ten Practical Teaching Points

1. Not every large intracranial lesion is symptomatic.

2. Trauma CT frequently detects unrelated congenital abnormalities.

3. MRI is mandatory for definitive characterization.

4. Always evaluate mass effect separately from symptom severity.

5. DWI is invaluable when differentiating epidermoid cysts.

6. Lack of enhancement strongly favors a benign arachnoid cyst.

7. Cortical thinning indicates chronic rather than acute disease.

8. Localized ventricular expansion differs fundamentally from hydrocephalus.

9. Clinical history remains as important as imaging.

10. Incidental findings require careful multidisciplinary discussion before recommending surgery.

Artificial Intelligence Perspective

From Incidental Detection to Intelligent Clinical Decision Support

The presented case highlights one of the greatest challenges in modern neuroradiology: identifying a rare congenital lesion that is clinically silent yet anatomically dramatic. Although the diagnosis of a giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst remains the responsibility of the interpreting radiologist, contemporary artificial intelligence (AI) systems are increasingly capable of assisting throughout the imaging workflow.

Importantly, the AI discussion below extends beyond the uploaded case and reflects current developments in radiology AI. These concepts should be viewed as complementary background rather than direct findings from the patient's imaging.

Foundation Models in Neuroradiology

Recent advances in foundation models have transformed medical image analysis. Unlike traditional algorithms trained to detect a single abnormality, foundation models learn generalized imaging representations from millions of images and can subsequently be adapted to diverse neurological tasks.

Potential applications include:

Automated intracranial structure segmentation
Ventricular volume measurement
Detection of mass effect
Midline shift estimation
Identification of CSF-containing lesions
Longitudinal volumetric comparison

For giant arachnoid cysts, these models can provide highly reproducible quantitative assessments that support radiologists rather than replace them.

Vision AI

Vision AI systems excel at identifying subtle imaging patterns that may escape initial review during busy emergency reporting sessions.

For cases resembling the uploaded patient, Vision AI could automatically detect:

Abnormally enlarged temporal horn
Abnormal occipital horn expansion
Ventricular asymmetry
Cortical thinning
Midline deviation
Brainstem compression

Rather than issuing a definitive diagnosis, the AI would assign a high-priority alert for radiologist review.

Quantitative Imaging

Traditional radiology reports often describe findings qualitatively:

Mild
Moderate
Severe

Modern AI enables objective measurements.

Examples include:

Quantitative Parameter	Clinical Value
Cyst volume	Monitor growth
Ventricular volume	Detect hydrocephalus
Midline shift	Assess mass effect
Cortical thickness	Evaluate chronic compression
Brainstem displacement	Surgical planning

Objective longitudinal measurements improve follow-up consistency across institutions.

Large Multimodal Models (LMMs)

Large Multimodal Models integrate:

CT
MRI
Radiology reports
Clinical history
Laboratory data
Electronic medical records

Instead of interpreting images alone, LMMs synthesize all available information into a unified clinical context.

For the current case, an LMM could generate a structured summary such as:

"Large CSF-equivalent intraventricular cyst with chronic remodeling of the right temporal and occipital horns. Imaging favors congenital arachnoid cyst. No imaging evidence of acute traumatic injury. Neurosurgical consultation recommended because of significant mass effect despite minimal neurological findings."

Such summaries improve communication between radiologists, emergency physicians, and neurosurgeons.

AI-Assisted Detection

AI is particularly valuable for incidental findings, which account for a substantial proportion of missed diagnoses in emergency imaging.

Potential automated detection includes:

Large arachnoid cyst
Colloid cyst
Chiari malformation
Intracranial aneurysm
Silent infarction
Developmental venous anomaly
Ventricular asymmetry

Emergency physicians frequently focus on acute hemorrhage after trauma. AI serves as a "second reader," helping ensure that unrelated but clinically important abnormalities are not overlooked.

Structured Reporting

One of the most promising applications of AI is the generation of standardized radiology reports.

For this case, a structured report could include:

Examination

MRI Brain with and without contrast

Findings

Giant CSF-equivalent cystic lesion
Right lateral ventricular involvement
Enlargement of temporal and occipital horns
Mild compression of the third ventricle
Mild midline shift
Marked cortical thinning
Compression of the midbrain and upper brainstem
No abnormal enhancement
No diffusion restriction

Impression

Giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst.
Chronic remodeling of adjacent cerebral structures.
Significant mass effect despite absence of acute neurological deficit.
Neurosurgical consultation recommended.

Standardized reports improve consistency, facilitate data mining, and support multicenter research.

Enterprise Imaging Integration

The full clinical value of AI is realized when integrated into an enterprise imaging ecosystem.

Figure 4. AI Clinical Workflow

A modern enterprise imaging workflow demonstrates how AI functions as an assistive layer between image acquisition and clinical decision-making. Automated lesion detection, quantitative analysis, and structured reporting enhance efficiency while preserving physician oversight.

Educational Message

AI should augment—not replace—the expertise of radiologists. Human interpretation remains essential for integrating imaging findings with the patient's clinical presentation.

Clinical Management

Management of arachnoid cysts is individualized and depends on:

Symptom severity
Lesion size
Anatomical location
Degree of mass effect
Presence of hydrocephalus
Risk of neurological deterioration

The uploaded case documented a recommendation for neurosurgical intervention because of the lesion's considerable size and mass effect, although the patient declined treatment and was lost to follow-up.

Conservative Management

Observation is appropriate for many patients who have:

No neurological symptoms
Stable lesion size
No progressive hydrocephalus
No evidence of increasing intracranial pressure

Typical follow-up includes periodic MRI examinations and neurological assessment.

Surgical Management

When intervention is indicated, options include:

Endoscopic Fenestration

Minimally invasive
Creates communication between the cyst and CSF spaces
Increasingly favored for suitable lesions

Microsurgical Fenestration

Direct visualization
Effective for complex anatomy
More invasive than endoscopy

Cystoperitoneal Shunting

Diverts cyst fluid into the peritoneal cavity
Reserved for selected cases
Long-term shunt dependency is a potential limitation

Complete Excision

Rarely feasible because the cyst wall often adheres to critical neurovascular structures.

Decision-Making Factors

Neurosurgical treatment is generally considered when one or more of the following are present:

Progressive neurological symptoms
Refractory headaches
Seizures attributable to the cyst
Hydrocephalus
Progressive enlargement on serial imaging
Significant mass effect with clinical deterioration

Importantly, large size alone does not mandate surgery. Clinical status and radiologic progression must be considered together.

Prognosis

The long-term outlook for patients with arachnoid cysts is generally excellent.

Most incidental cysts remain stable over many years, and many individuals never require intervention. When surgery is indicated, outcomes are favorable in appropriately selected patients, with improvement in symptoms such as headache or hydrocephalus.

Because the patient in the uploaded case did not undergo follow-up after declining neurosurgical care, the subsequent clinical course is unknown.

Clinical Pearls

Most arachnoid cysts are congenital and benign.
Incidental discovery during trauma imaging is common.
MRI is the imaging modality of choice for characterization.
Giant cysts may remain completely asymptomatic.
Cortical thinning reflects chronic adaptation rather than acute injury.
Diffusion-weighted imaging helps distinguish arachnoid cysts from epidermoid cysts.
Imaging findings should always be interpreted alongside the neurological examination.
AI can assist with detection, volumetric analysis, and structured reporting.
Observation is appropriate for many asymptomatic patients.
Multidisciplinary collaboration ensures optimal management.

Quiz

Question 1

A 22-year-old man undergoes a brain CT following minor head trauma. CT reveals a large CSF-density lesion occupying the right temporal and occipital horns without hemorrhage. MRI demonstrates CSF-equivalent signal intensity, no enhancement, and no diffusion restriction.

What is the most likely diagnosis?

A. Epidermoid cyst

B. Colloid cyst

C. Giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst

D. Cystic glioma

E. Brain abscess

Correct Answer: C. Giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst

Explanation

The lesion follows CSF on every imaging sequence, lacks enhancement and diffusion restriction, and demonstrates chronic remodeling—features characteristic of an arachnoid cyst.

Question 2 (Image Interpretation)

Which MRI feature most reliably differentiates an arachnoid cyst from an epidermoid cyst?

A. T2 hyperintensity

B. Thin wall

C. Lack of enhancement

D. Diffusion-weighted imaging

E. Mild mass effect

Correct Answer: D. Diffusion-weighted imaging

Explanation

Epidermoid cysts typically demonstrate restricted diffusion because of keratinaceous contents, whereas arachnoid cysts follow CSF signal and do not restrict diffusion.

Question 3 (Clinical Reasoning)

A patient has a giant arachnoid cyst with significant mass effect but no neurological deficits.

Which management strategy is generally most appropriate?

A. Immediate craniotomy for all patients

B. Whole-brain radiation therapy

C. Clinical and imaging correlation with individualized management

D. Corticosteroid therapy

E. Chemotherapy

Correct Answer: C. Clinical and imaging correlation with individualized management

Explanation

Treatment depends on symptoms, lesion progression, hydrocephalus, and neurological findings—not size alone.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

1. What is an arachnoid cyst?

An arachnoid cyst is a benign cerebrospinal fluid-filled lesion located within duplicated layers of the arachnoid membrane.

2. Are arachnoid cysts brain tumors?

No. They are congenital developmental lesions rather than neoplasms.

3. How common are they?

Approximately 1–2% of adults have intracranial arachnoid cysts, many of which remain undiagnosed.

4. Why was this patient's cyst discovered only after trauma?

The CT scan was performed to evaluate a head injury. The cyst was an incidental finding unrelated to the accident.

5. Can such a large cyst truly be asymptomatic?

Yes. Slow enlargement allows the brain to adapt over many years.

6. Is MRI always necessary?

MRI provides superior tissue characterization and is the preferred modality for confirming the diagnosis and assessing mass effect.

7. When is surgery indicated?

Typical indications include:

Progressive symptoms
Hydrocephalus
Seizures attributable to the cyst
Progressive enlargement
Neurological deterioration

8. Can the cyst become malignant?

There is no evidence that arachnoid cysts undergo malignant transformation.

9. How does AI help?

AI can assist with lesion detection, volumetric analysis, structured reporting, workflow prioritization, and longitudinal follow-up.

10. What is the prognosis?

Most patients have an excellent prognosis, particularly when lesions remain stable and asymptomatic.

Conclusion

This case demonstrates the extraordinary value of diagnostic imaging in revealing clinically silent but anatomically significant abnormalities. A 22-year-old man, evaluated after minor head trauma, was incidentally found to harbor a giant intraventricular arachnoid cyst involving the right temporal and occipital horns. Despite an estimated size of 11 × 7 cm, cortical thinning, mild midline shift, and compression of the third ventricle and brainstem, the patient exhibited no focal neurological deficits. Neurosurgical intervention was recommended, but the patient elected to leave the hospital without further follow-up.

Several important lessons emerge from this case:

Incidental findings matter. Imaging performed for one clinical indication may reveal unrelated abnormalities with significant long-term implications.
Radiologic severity and clinical severity do not always correlate. Slow-growing congenital lesions can produce remarkable anatomical remodeling while remaining clinically silent.
MRI is indispensable. It defines lesion extent, confirms CSF-equivalent signal characteristics, excludes alternative diagnoses, and supports management decisions.
AI is poised to enhance neuroradiology. Foundation models, quantitative imaging, structured reporting, and multimodal decision-support systems will increasingly improve consistency, efficiency, and early recognition of incidental findings while preserving radiologist oversight.

Ultimately, this case reminds us that radiology is not merely the interpretation of images—it is the integration of anatomy, pathophysiology, clinical context, and emerging technologies to guide individualized patient care.

Continue Learning

Core Topic

Intracranial Arachnoid Cysts
Congenital Brain Malformations
Cerebrospinal Fluid Disorders
Neuroanatomy of the Ventricular System

Related Disorders

Epidermoid Cyst
Colloid Cyst
Porencephalic Cyst
Neuroglial Cyst
Hydrocephalus
Chiari Malformation

Advanced Imaging

Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
FLAIR Imaging
Cine Phase-Contrast MRI
Volumetric Brain MRI
AI-Based Brain Segmentation

AI Applications

AI-Assisted Neuroradiology
Foundation Models in Medical Imaging
Large Multimodal Models
Automated Volumetric Analysis
Enterprise Imaging Platforms
Structured Radiology Reporting
Clinical Decision Support Systems

Future Research Directions

Future investigations should focus on:

Natural history of asymptomatic giant arachnoid cysts
AI-driven automated ventricular and cyst volumetry
Predictive models for symptom development
Integration of radiomics and genomics in congenital CNS lesions
Large multicenter registries evaluating long-term outcomes
Explainable AI for neuroradiology workflows
Foundation model validation across diverse MRI protocols
Personalized surgical decision-support systems

References

Al-Holou WN, et al. Prevalence and natural history of arachnoid cysts in adults. J Neurosurg. 2013.
Hall S, et al. Arachnoid cysts: congenital lesions and contemporary management. World Neurosurg.
Wester K. Intracranial arachnoid cysts—clinical features and treatment. Neurosurg Rev.
Osborn AG. Diagnostic Imaging: Brain. Elsevier.
Barkovich AJ. Pediatric Neuroimaging. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Atlas SW. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain and Spine.
European Society of Radiology. ESR statement on artificial intelligence in radiology.
RSNA AI Committee. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Radiology.
Topol EJ. High-Performance Medicine: The Convergence of Human and Artificial Intelligence. Nat Med. 2019.
Litjens G, et al. A Survey on Deep Learning in Medical Image Analysis. Med Image Anal. 2017.